Misunderstood Words in the Kingdom of God

“Turn the other cheek.” For some Christians, the phrase has become little more than shorthand for passive niceness, a call to quietly tolerate mistreatment or avoid conflict at all costs. Others have interpreted Matthew 5:39 as a command to remain indefinitely within oppressive or abusive situations because “Jesus said not to resist evil.” At times, this text has even been weaponized against vulnerable people, counseling victims of manipulation, domestic abuse, or coercive authority to endure mistreatment in the name of obedience.

Such interpretations fail not only pastorally, but exegetically. When Jesus says, “But I say to you, do not resist an evildoer. But if anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also” (Matt. 5:39), He is not sanctifying victimhood or glorifying weakness. Rather, Jesus articulates a deeply subversive vision of Kingdom life in which evil is resisted without imitation, dignity is preserved without retaliation, and disciples learn to inhabit power differently.¹ Modern readers instinctively hear these words through Western assumptions about interpersonal conflict. Yet Jesus spoke into a world structured by hierarchy, honor, shame, patronage, and domination. To His original audience, this teaching would not have sounded sentimental. It would have sounded politically dangerous, socially disruptive, and spiritually liberating. Matthew places this command within the Sermon on the Mount, specifically among the so-called antitheses of Matthew 5:21–48. Repeatedly Jesus declares, “You have heard that it was said… but I say to you,” not abolishing Torah but intensifying it, pressing beneath legal conformity toward transformed character.² Murder begins with anger. Adultery begins with lust. Manipulative oath-making gives way to integrity. Enemy hatred yields to enemy love. Throughout Matthew 5, Jesus behaves less like a moral legislator and more like a physician of the human heart.³

The command to turn the other cheek emerges immediately after Jesus addresses lex talionis: “You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth’” (Matt. 5:38). Modern readers frequently misunderstand this principle as primitive or cruel, yet within the legal world of the ancient Near East it represented restraint rather than escalation. Comparable formulations appear in the Code of Hammurabi and other legal traditions where proportional justice prevented retaliatory excess.⁴ Injury could easily spiral into clan violence, blood feuds, and endless cycles of revenge. “Eye for eye” functioned not as permission for vengeance but as limitation upon vengeance.⁵ Old Testament scholars frequently remind readers that lex talionis represented moral restraint rather than retaliatory excess. Christopher Wright argues that Israel’s legal vision consistently sought proportionality and communal restoration rather than unchecked revenge.⁶ In this sense, Jesus is not overturning Torah but radicalizing its telos, pressing beyond measured retaliation toward transformed persons who no longer instinctively seek retaliation at all. Walton similarly observes that Ancient Near Eastern legal systems frequently aimed at preserving social equilibrium within communal life rather than fueling cycles of escalating violence.⁷

Jesus, however, presses beyond even restrained retaliation. His concern is not simply regulating revenge but transforming the sort of people who no longer instinctively require revenge to preserve identity. The Greek text sharpens the issue. The phrase commonly translated “do not resist an evildoer” derives from mē antistēnai tō ponērō. The verb anthistēmi often carries the sense of forceful opposition, military resistance, or retaliatory confrontation.⁸ Yet elsewhere Scripture explicitly commands resistance to evil. James exhorts believers to “resist the devil” (Jas. 4:7), while Peter similarly commands steadfast resistance against spiritual opposition (1 Pet. 5:9). Jesus therefore cannot mean that all forms of resistance are forbidden.

The issue is not resistance. The issue is retaliation.

Walter Wink famously argued that Matthew 5:39 is best understood as prohibiting violent retaliation rather than resistance altogether.⁹ While some scholars caution against overstating the lexical precision of Wink’s translation, his broader socio-rhetorical reading remains compelling because it fits the literary flow of Matthew 5:38–42 remarkably well. Jesus consistently imagines situations in which vulnerable people confront domination without becoming dominated and resist injustice without reproducing its methods.¹⁰ The specificity of Jesus’ example becomes crucial: “If anyone strikes you on your right cheek…” Why the right cheek? The detail matters because Jesus’ world functioned through deeply embedded honor-shame dynamics. Public interactions communicated status. Gestures reinforced hierarchy. Roman imperial society operated through visible demonstrations of superiority and submission: masters over slaves, elite patrons over peasants, husbands over wives, Roman citizens over conquered populations. Public humiliation often served as social control.¹¹ Within Jewish culture, the right hand held symbolic and practical significance. The left hand was commonly regarded as ritually unclean and unsuitable for public interaction. Consequently, if a right-handed person struck another individual on the right cheek, the most natural movement would involve a backhanded blow.¹²

This distinction proves essential because a backhanded strike in antiquity communicated more than physical aggression. It conveyed degradation. Such blows reinforced hierarchy, treating the recipient as socially inferior. A master disciplined a servant this way. A superior humiliated a subordinate this way. The act communicated diminished worth. It was not merely painful; it was demeaning.¹³ Jewish legal tradition appears to recognize this distinction. In Mishnah Bava Kamma 8:6, penalties for public humiliation varied according to severity, with backhanded strikes receiving heightened compensation because insult itself constituted injury.¹⁴ Scholars of Mediterranean culture repeatedly stress that honor and shame functioned as social currency in the world of Jesus. Jerome Neyrey notes that public gestures communicated status with remarkable precision, often reinforcing social hierarchy through symbolic interaction.¹⁵ Within patron-client societies, humiliation frequently functioned as social control, reminding subordinates of their place.¹⁶ Consequently, Jesus’ instruction does not merely concern private morality. It confronts an entire social imagination governed by domination. Seen in this light, Jesus’ teaching suddenly comes alive. He is not imagining lethal violence or random assault. He imagines humiliation within asymmetrical power structures. Someone possessing greater status publicly degrades another person and expects the socially conditioned response: retreat, submission, shame.

Yet Jesus says: “Turn the other also.”

Far from passive surrender, many interpreters understand this gesture as a subtle but powerful act of nonviolent dignity. Walter Wink’s influential reading proposes that turning the left cheek after receiving a backhanded strike quietly interrupts the aggressor’s social script.¹⁷ The backhand no longer works naturally. To strike again requires another form of blow, one more fitting for equals than inferiors. In effect, the victim silently communicates: You may seek to humiliate me, but I refuse your definition of my worth.

N. T. Wright captures the social dynamic succinctly: “Offering the other cheek means, in effect, ‘If you are going to hit me, hit me as an equal, not an inferior.’”¹⁸

Not all commentators press the mechanics of the scene with identical certainty, yet many recognize the broader socio-rhetorical force of Jesus’ example. Ulrich Luz cautions against reducing the passage to historical reconstruction alone while nevertheless acknowledging that Jesus envisions a morally creative response refusing both submission and vengeance.¹⁹ Davies and Allison similarly argue that the command fundamentally resists the perpetuation of reciprocal violence.²⁰ The brilliance of Jesus’ teaching lies precisely here. The disciple neither retaliates nor collapses. Evil is confronted without imitation. Dignity is preserved without violence. Humiliation loses some of its power because the recipient refuses to internalize inferiority.

Reading Matthew 5:39 in Context

The phrase “turn the other cheek” only becomes fully intelligible when read within the tightly connected movement of Matthew 5:38–42. Jesus is not offering isolated moral aphorisms. He presents a coherent Kingdom imagination through examples involving vulnerable people encountering coercive power. Immediately after the right-cheek saying, Jesus continues: “And if anyone wants to sue you and take your tunic, let him have your cloak as well” (Matt. 5:40).

Modern readers often sentimentalize this image, imagining simple generosity detached from historical reality. Yet first-century peasants lived beneath oppressive taxation, debt vulnerability, and economic extraction. Roman imperial systems, Herodian governance, temple obligations, and elite landholding frequently pushed ordinary families toward financial collapse.²¹ The distinction between tunic (chitōn) and cloak (himation) matters. The tunic served as undergarment, while the outer cloak functioned as blanket, protection, and nighttime covering. Torah itself recognized its significance: “If you take your neighbor’s cloak in pledge, you shall restore it before the sun goes down, for it may be your neighbor’s only clothing” (Exod. 22:26–27).

Jesus imagines someone already standing within an exploitative legal situation. Yet rather than retaliating or collapsing into humiliation, He proposes an imaginative countermove: surrender even the cloak. The act becomes quietly exposing. As Wink observes, public nakedness in Jewish culture frequently brought shame not primarily upon the exposed person but upon the observer.²² The oppressor suddenly becomes morally visible. Once again, Jesus neither advocates retaliation nor passive victimhood. Instead, He imagines a form of resistance that unmasks injustice without reproducing it.

The pattern intensifies: “And if anyone forces you to go one mile, go also the second mile” (Matt. 5:41). Here Jesus almost certainly alludes to Roman military practice. Soldiers possessed legal authority to compel civilians into temporary labor, particularly carrying military provisions. For occupied Jewish peasants, such forced service represented one of the ordinary humiliations of imperial life. Yet Roman regulations imposed limits. Soldiers could compel labor for one mile, but exceeding that distance exposed them to disciplinary consequences.²³ Jesus’ instruction therefore carries subtle but unmistakable subversive force. By voluntarily continuing into a second mile, the disciple unexpectedly destabilizes the power dynamic. What began as coercion becomes voluntary initiative. The soldier loses control of the script.

Across all three examples, a coherent pattern emerges. Jesus repeatedly imagines vulnerable people facing humiliation within unequal power structures: insult from a superior, exploitation through legal systems, and coercion under empire. In every case, He rejects the false binary between retaliation and surrender. Instead, disciples respond with dignity, freedom, and moral initiative. This coheres naturally with the larger movement of the Sermon on the Mount. The poor in spirit inherit blessing (Matt. 5:3). The meek inherit the earth (Matt. 5:5). Mercy supersedes domination. Enemy love replaces vengeance. Throughout Matthew’s Gospel, Jesus repeatedly overturns worldly assumptions about strength and status.²⁴ Importantly, Matthew 5:39 cannot be detached from the climactic command to “love your enemies” later in the chapter (Matt. 5:43–48). Turning the other cheek becomes one concrete expression of enemy love because disciples refuse to allow hostility to dictate moral posture. Jesus grounds this ethic in imitation of the Father Himself, “for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on the good” (Matt. 5:45). Kingdom ethics flow not from sentimentality but from participation in divine character.²⁵ The motive in true love is that every enemy be reconciled in britherhood.

Dallas Willard repeatedly insisted that the Sermon on the Mount should not be approached as impossible moral idealism. Many Christians mistakenly assume Jesus intentionally teaches unattainable ethics merely to reveal human inadequacy. Willard rejects such readings outright. For him, Jesus describes what life genuinely looks like when people increasingly live beneath the active reign of God.²⁶ The Sermon is not fantasy morality. It is transformed possibility. Turning the other cheek, therefore, is not primarily a technique. It reflects the kind of person one becomes through apprenticeship to Jesus. Only a deeply transformed person can stand before humiliation without collapsing into retaliation or despair. Much human conflict emerges from disordered attachment to reputation, control, and self-protection.

We retaliate because identity feels threatened… Identity increasingly migrates away from public validation toward belovedness.

Criticism wounds because approval quietly governs worth. Public humiliation destabilizes because ego remains fragile.²⁷ Jesus quietly dismantles this architecture. Throughout the Sermon on the Mount, disciples are repeatedly redirected toward the Father: “your Father who sees in secret” (Matt. 6:4, 6, 18). Hidden righteousness replaces performance. Secret prayer replaces image management. Trust displaces anxiety. Identity increasingly migrates away from public validation toward belovedness. Consequently, insult loses some of its coercive force. This does not mean humiliation ceases to hurt. Betrayal still wounds. False accusation still stings. Yet such experiences no longer possess ultimate authority over the self. The disciple gradually becomes difficult to manipulate because worth no longer depends upon another person’s verdict.

Jesus as the Embodiment of the Other Cheek

At this point, an important theological observation must be made: Jesus not only teaches the ethic of the Kingdom, He embodies it. One of the interpretive dangers surrounding the Sermon on the Mount is reducing Jesus’ words to abstract moral principles detached from His own life and mission. Yet Matthew consistently presents Jesus as both teacher and exemplar. The passion narratives illuminate this dynamic with striking clarity. Jesus repeatedly encounters the very kinds of power structures described in Matthew 5:38–42. Before the Sanhedrin, He faces judicial manipulation. Before Pilate, He stands before imperial authority. Roman soldiers mock Him, strike Him, spit upon Him, and publicly humiliate Him. Yet at every stage Jesus refuses to imitate the logic of domination surrounding Him.²⁸ John 18 offers an especially revealing moment: “When he had said this, one of the temple police standing nearby struck Jesus on the face, saying, ‘Is that how you answer the high priest?’ Jesus answered, ‘If I have spoken wrongly, testify to the wrong. But if I have spoken rightly, why do you strike me?’” (John 18:22–23) Jesus neither retaliates nor silently legitimizes injustice. He does not strike back, yet neither does He quietly absorb degradation as morally acceptable. Instead, He calmly exposes wrongdoing through truthfulness. Dietrich Bonhoeffer perceptively observed that Jesus’ refusal of retaliation does not signal weakness but discipleship. “The evil person cannot bear the refusal to meet him on his own terms,” he writes, because the disciple’s refusal to retaliate exposes the poverty of domination itself.²⁹

The cross intensifies this paradox. Roman crucifixion represented the ultimate machinery of domination. Crucifixion was not merely execution. It was political theater. Victims were stripped, mocked, publicly exposed, and displayed as warnings to conquered populations. As Martin Hengel demonstrates, crucifixion functioned as imperial propaganda designed to reinforce Rome’s power through humiliation.³⁰ Shame stood at the center of the system. Yet the earliest Christians made an astonishing claim: the cross revealed not Rome’s victory but God’s. What empire intended as degradation became revelation. What Rome designed as shame became glory. The powers exposed their own moral bankruptcy precisely through their treatment of Jesus. This is why Paul later declares that Christ “disarmed the rulers and authorities and made a public example of them” (Col. 2:15). Ironically, domination unmasks itself.³¹ Michael Gorman helpfully describes this ethic as participation in the cruciform life of Christ, a mode of existence in which self-giving faithfulness exposes the bankruptcy of domination without reproducing its violence.³² Jesus’ refusal to answer coercion with coercion reveals a Kingdom whose power appears most clearly in self-giving love.

When “Turn the Other Cheek” Is Misused

An important pastoral clarification becomes necessary because Matthew 5:39 has sometimes been interpreted in ways that distort both the heart of Jesus and the trajectory of Scripture. One of the more troubling misapplications of this passage occurs when “turn the other cheek” is invoked to justify enduring abusive relationships, manipulative authority structures, or sustained environments of harm. Victims of emotional, spiritual, sexual, or physical abuse have at times been counseled to remain within destructive situations because faithful discipleship supposedly requires endless submission.

Such readings misunderstand both context and theology. Jesus’ example concerns insult and humiliation within asymmetrical social structures, not perpetual exposure to violence or coercive captivity. The backhanded slap of Matthew 5:39 communicates degradation. Jesus addresses humiliation, not chronic abuse. The broader witness of Scripture consistently affirms God’s concern for the vulnerable and His opposition to exploitative power. Torah repeatedly protects widows, laborers, foreigners, and the economically vulnerable (Deut. 24:14–22). The prophets condemn systems that “trample on the poor” (Amos 5:11–12). Jesus Himself repeatedly exposes predatory leadership and rejects domination disguised as spirituality (Matt. 23:1–36).Indeed, Jesus explicitly rejects coercive models of authority: “You know that the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them… It will not be so among you” (Matt. 20:25–26). The Kingdom Jesus announces does not preserve domination. It undermines it.

Boundaries are not opposed to love. Accountability is not contrary to grace. Wisdom is not the enemy of compassion.

In some circumstances, truthful confrontation, separation from destructive behavior, or the establishment of healthy limits may represent profoundly Kingdom-oriented responses. Glen Stassen helpfully describes Jesus’ ethic as “transforming initiatives,” responses designed neither to perpetuate victimhood nor reproduce violence but to interrupt destructive cycles creatively.³³ The disciple need not choose between revenge and surrender. Jesus imagines another possibility altogether. Importantly, this clarification becomes necessary precisely because Matthew 5:39 has occasionally been wielded carelessly in pastoral contexts. Victims of abuse do not need theological justification for further harm. They need protection, truth, safety, accountability, and healing. To invoke “turn the other cheek” in ways that preserve exploitation is not faithfulness to Jesus. It is a tragic misunderstanding of Him.

Apprenticeship and the Slow Formation of the Self

One of the reasons Matthew 5:39 continues to unsettle modern readers is because it exposes how deeply human beings depend upon retaliation for emotional equilibrium. To be insulted, dismissed, betrayed, or publicly diminished often produces an instinctive craving for vindication. We imagine dignity can only be restored through defense, explanation, counterattack, or withdrawal. Yet beneath Jesus’ command lies a deeper question: Why does this wound me so deeply in the first place?

The Sermon on the Mount consistently presses beneath behavior toward the interior architecture of the soul. Jesus repeatedly traces outward action back to inward formation. Murder begins with anger (Matt. 5:21–26). Adultery begins with desire (Matt. 5:27–30). Judgmentalism emerges from distorted self-awareness (Matt. 7:1–5). Anxiety reveals misplaced trust (Matt. 6:25–34). Turning the other cheek functions similarly. The command exposes hidden attachments. Why does criticism linger for days? Why does misunderstanding consume emotional energy? Why do insults provoke disproportionate anger? Often because identity has become tethered to unstable foundations. Dallas Willard repeatedly insists that much of spiritual maturity involves liberation from what he calls “image management.”³⁴ Human beings spend extraordinary emotional energy preserving preferred versions of themselves. Achievement becomes worth. Influence becomes security. Ministry effectiveness becomes identity. Approval becomes emotional oxygen.

Consequently, criticism wounds because it threatens something we quietly worship. Yet Jesus dismantles these structures throughout the Sermon on the Mount. The disciple learns to pray in secret because righteousness no longer depends upon performance (Matt. 6:5–6). Generosity becomes hidden because recognition ceases to govern motivation (Matt. 6:1–4). Enemy love becomes possible because superiority no longer defines identity (Matt. 5:43–48). Willard repeatedly argues that the deepest challenge of discipleship concerns the reordering of desire itself. The problem is not simply behavior but the sort of person one is becoming. In Renovation of the Heart, he insists that transformation occurs as the entire self is reorganized around life in God’s Kingdom rather than around anxiety, approval, and self-protection.³⁵ Seen in this light, turning the other cheek becomes less a rule to obey and more evidence of inward renovation.

The Kingdom quietly relocates the center of gravity. The disciple increasingly derives worth not from applause but from belovedness. This changes everything about conflict. Humiliation loses some of its power because identity no longer depends upon another person’s verdict. One no longer requires retaliation to recover dignity because dignity was never truly lost. Such formation takes time. Indeed, this may be one of the least appreciated realities of discipleship. Jesus assumes apprenticeship. No disciple suddenly becomes immune to offense. Through prayer, obedience, suffering, repentance, worship, and community, people slowly become different sorts of persons. Willard emphasizes that spiritual formation concerns becoming the kind of person for whom obedience increasingly becomes natural.³⁶ The mature disciple does not merely suppress retaliation through moral effort. They slowly become someone for whom retaliation feels less psychologically necessary.

• Criticism still hurts.
• Conflict still wounds.
• But it no longer governs identity.

This becomes especially important because modern “right cheek” moments are rarely physical. Faithful service goes unnoticed. Ministry motives become questioned. Churches disappoint. Relationships fracture. Family members wound through careless speech. Colleagues diminish contributions. Communities gossip. Betrayal arrives unexpectedly. The forms have changed. Human nature has not. Retaliation still promises relief. Vindication still feels necessary. Yet experience repeatedly proves that revenge rarely heals wounds. More often, it perpetuates them. Humiliation breeds humiliation. Anger multiplies anger. Communities fracture through cycles of reciprocal injury. Jesus interrupts the cycle. He imagines disciples capable of preserving dignity without domination, resisting evil without hatred, and confronting injustice without becoming captive to its methods. Few teachings in the Sermon on the Mount expose the human heart quite as honestly as “turn the other cheek,” because few commands confront our deepest attachments to control, vindication, and self-protection more directly.

CONCLUSION

What Jesus says in Matthew 5:39 is far more powerful than many of us have been taught. Too often, “turn the other cheek” gets reduced to simply tolerating bad behavior, avoiding conflict, or quietly accepting mistreatment because somehow “that’s what Jesus wants.” Tragically, there have even been moments where this verse has been used to counsel people to stay in abusive or destructive situations, believing enduring harm is somehow synonymous with faithfulness. But when we slow down and really pay attention to what Jesus is saying, especially the importance of the right cheek, we discover something remarkably different.

Jesus is not teaching weakness. He is teaching dignity. In the world of the first century, a backhanded strike to the right cheek was not merely physical pain. It was humiliation. It was how someone of higher status reminded another person of their place. It said, You are beneath me. You are less than me. Stay there. Yet Jesus does something profoundly subversive. Rather than retaliate in violence or collapse in shame, He teaches His disciples a third way. Turn the other cheek. Stand there. Refuse to surrender your humanity. Refuse to internalize inferiority. In essence, Jesus teaches His followers to say: You may try to treat me as less than, but I bear the image of God, and you do not get to define my worth.

That is not passivity. That is courage. And perhaps this matters even more today than it did then because many of us are not being physically struck on the right cheek, but we are being metaphorically struck all the time. Someone belittles you. Someone manipulates you. Someone speaks to you as though you are less than. A boss humiliates you publicly. A family member wounds you with dismissive words. A church leader abuses authority. A friend betrays trust. In those moments, our instinct is often to swing back, retreat inward, or quietly begin believing the lie that we really are worth less than how we are being treated.

Jesus offers another path. Turning the other cheek does not mean accepting injustice or pretending wounds are not real. It does not mean abandoning boundaries, tolerating abuse, or refusing wisdom. It means refusing to let evil dictate the terms of who you become. It means standing firm enough in your God-given dignity that you no longer need retaliation to prove your worth, yet refusing to surrender your humanity by shrinking into shame. It is, in many ways, one of the strongest acts of spiritual resistance a disciple can practice.

The truth is, we live in a world still governed by hierarchy, prestige, power, and domination. People still build themselves up by pushing others down. The methods may have changed, but human nature has not. Public humiliation, manipulation, bullying, social shaming, relational power plays, and subtle forms of control still shape much of human interaction. Yet Jesus calls His disciples to quietly undermine the whole system. Refuse the game. Refuse the power grab. Refuse the cycle of humiliation and retaliation. Stand in your dignity and trust that your worth has already been settled by the Father.

After all, is this not exactly what Jesus Himself showed us? He stood before Rome, before corrupt religious systems, before mockery, violence, and humiliation, and yet He refused to surrender His identity or mirror the violence surrounding Him. In giving up His rights, He exposed the emptiness of worldly power. He revealed how fragile and pathetic domination really is when compared to truth, humility, and sacrificial love.

And perhaps that is where this teaching finally lands for us. The next time someone metaphorically strikes you on the right cheek, perhaps the question is not simply, Will I react? The deeper question may be: How can I respond in a way that preserves both truth and dignity? How do I refuse humiliation without needing revenge?

Because maybe turning the other cheek is not Jesus calling us to become doormats at all. Maybe it is Jesus teaching us how to stand tall.

This article written by Will Ryan Th.D. and Matt Mouzakis Th.D.

Footnotes

1. The Divine Conspiracy (New York: HarperOne, 1998), 135.
2. R. T. France, The Gospel of Matthew (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007), 173.
3. Scot McKnight, Sermon on the Mount (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2013), 48.
4. John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2006), 296.
5. Craig S. Keener, The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009), 194.
6. Christopher J. H. Wright, Old Testament Ethics for the People of God (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2004), 290.
7. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament, 296.
8. Walter Bauer, Frederick W. Danker, William F. Arndt, and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 81.
9. Engaging the Powers (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1992), 175.
10. W. D. Davies and Dale C. Allison Jr., A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew, Vol. 1 (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1988), 541.
11. Bruce J. Malina, The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology, 3rd ed. (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2001), 32.
12. Joachim Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1969), 121.
13. Wink, Engaging the Powers, 176.
14. Mishnah Bava Kamma 8:6.
15. Jerome H. Neyrey, Honor and Shame in the Gospel of Matthew (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1998), 25.
16. Malina, The New Testament World, 38.
17. Wink, Engaging the Powers, 177.
18. N. T. Wright, Matthew for Everyone, Part One (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2004), 58.
19. Matthew 1–7 (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 333.
20. Davies and Allison, Matthew, 543.
21. Richard A. Horsley, Jesus and the Spiral of Violence (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1987), 189.
22. Wink, Engaging the Powers, 181.
23. France, Matthew, 220.
24. Michael J. Gorman, Reading Revelation Responsibly (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2011), 88.
25. McKnight, Sermon on the Mount, 116.
26. France, Matthew, 228.
27. Willard, The Divine Conspiracy, 142.
28. Willard, The Divine Conspiracy, 149.
29. France, Matthew, 872.
30. The Cost of Discipleship (New York: Macmillan, 1963), 135.
31. Crucifixion in the Ancient World and the Folly of the Message of the Cross (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977), 25.
32. N. T. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1996), 608.
33. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, 610.
34. Michael J. Gorman, Cruciformity: Paul’s Narrative Spirituality of the Cross (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 4.
35. Glen H. Stassen, Living the Sermon on the Mount (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006), 89.
36. Stassen, Living the Sermon on the Mount, 91.
37. Willard, The Divine Conspiracy, 152.
38. Renovation of the Heart (Colorado Springs: NavPress, 2002), 15.
39. Willard, The Divine Conspiracy, 318.
40. Keener, Matthew, 198.
41. Bonhoeffer, The Cost of Discipleship, 139.
42. Luz, Matthew 1–7, 334.
43. Neyrey, Honor and Shame in the Gospel of Matthew, 30.
44. Malina, The New Testament World, 41.
45. Davies and Allison, Matthew, 545.